
Clinical death is the medical term for cessation of blood circulation and breathing, the two necessary criteria to sustain human and many other organisms' lives. It occurs when the heart stops beating in a regular rhythm, a condition called cardiac arrest. The term is also sometimes used in resuscitation research. Stopped blood circulation has historically proven irreversible in most cases. …

The philosophy of biology is a subfield of philosophy of science, which deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical issues in the biological and biomedical sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology (e.g., Aristotle, Descartes, and even Kant), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the…

DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) is extremely important. All living things have DNA, or in the case of some viruses they have RNA instead. In eukaryotes, it is found within the nucleus and is arranged into chromosomes. DNA determines the characteristics of an organism. Specific codes of DNA are called genes. DNA is made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides are repeating units, that are made up…

Mitochondria are vitally important cellular organelles and undergo their own aging process becoming less efficient in aged animals including humans. These changes have wide-ranging significance contributing to immune dysfunction (autoimmunity and immune deficiency), inflammation, delayed healing, skin and retinal damage, cancer and most of the degenerative diseases of aging. Mitochondrial aging…

The pre-analytical phase is defined as the period from the physician’s indication of the test up to the laboratory analysis of the biological material. In other words, this phase involves an individual’s preparation for collection of the biological material, the collection itself, storage of the collected sample and its transport to the laboratory, and preparation of the sample for the ass…

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) tools and approaches are expected to become a critical component for the prevention, control, and eradication of animal diseases at a global scale in the near future. In the last decades the amount of information that is being generated in all scientific disciplines, including microbiological studies applied to infectious diseases, has i…


We’ll begin with a brief introduction to the two main types of stem cells, embryonic and adult stem cells. We’ll then discuss stem cell potency. The second section “Stem cells in research and diseases management” will focus on the opportunities and roles of stem cells in diseases and medical research. Stem cells have a special position in contemporary biological sciences due to their…

Biology for AP® Courses covers the scope and sequence requirements of a typical two-semester Advanced Placement® biology course. The text provides comprehensive coverage of foundational research and core biology concepts through an evolutionary lens. Biology for AP® Courses was designed to meet and exceed the requirements of the College Board’s AP® Biology framework while allowing signifi…